Article

Brunt, Tibor M and van den Brink, Wim and van Amsterdam, Jan (2025) Rare but relevant: nitrous oxide and peripheral neurotoxicity, what do we know? Addiction , 120 , (5) , pp. 1046-1050.

Doukhi, Diana and Siguret, Virginie and Vodovar, Dominique and Delrue, Maxime and Reiner, Peggy and Aghetti, Agnes and Guey, Stéphanie and Mazighi, Mikael and Crassard, Isabelle (2025) Cerebral venous thrombosis and nitrous oxide intoxication: report of two cases and review of the literature. Brain and Behavior , 15 , (3) .

Millar, Seán (2025) Frostbite injuries from recreational nitrous oxide use. Drugnet Ireland , Issue 90, Winter 2025 , p. 30.

Walter, Hannah and Cameron, Jacqueline Jane and Simpson, Helen and Kor, Kenny and MacLean, Sarah and Allan, Julaine (2025) Exploring the experiences and perceptions of young people’s recreational nitrous oxide use. Advances in Dual Diagnosis , Early online .

Wang, Jing and Hao, Yulei and Ma, Di and Feng, Liangshu and Yang, Feng and An, Pingxu and Su, Xingqi and Feng, Jiachun (2025) Neurotoxicity mechanisms and clinical implications of six common recreational drugs. Frontiers in Pharmacology , 16 .

de Morais, Joanna and Van Aerts, L and Evans-Brown, Michael and Gallegos, Ana and Christie, Rachel and Jorge, Rita and Nefau, J and Planchuelo, Gregorio and Sedefov, Roumen and Victorri Vigneau, Caroline and Povilanskiene, R and Grasaasen, K and Palmqvis, D F t and Mongan, Deirdre and Killeen, K and Duarte, A O and Santos, A S (2024) Recreational use of nitrous oxide – a growing concern in Europe. Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health , 4 .

Allen, Oliver and Keating, Muireann (2024) Nitrous oxide tank cold burn to the forearm: a case study and discussion of the literature. Emergency Nurse , 32 , (4) , pp. 22-27.

Murphy, D and Leon, R and Carr, S and de Blacam, C (2024) Frostbite injuries from recreational nitrous oxide use. Irish Medical Journal , 119 , (2) , pp. 910-920.

Back, Sammie and Kroon, Emese and Colyer-Patel, Karis and Cousijn, Janna (2024) Does nitrous oxide addiction exist? An evaluation of the evidence for the presence and prevalence of substance use disorder symptoms in recreational nitrous oxide users. Addiction , 119 , (4) , pp. 609-618.

Oakes, Conor and Adnan, Adam and Kavanagh, Pierce and McCormack, Séamus and Killeen, Nicki (2024) A simple presumptive field test for nitrous oxide. Irish Journal of Medical Science , 193 , pp. 1651-1652.

Verboeket, Sebastiaan O and van den Bergh, Judith and van Amsterdam, Jan and Nabben, Ton and van den Brink, Wim and Goudriaan, Anna E (2024) Treatment seeking nitrous oxide users in addiction care: a comparison with cocaine users on clinical and treatment characteristics. European Addiction Research , 30 , (4) , pp. 223-232.

Mohamed, S and Torreggiani, W (2024) Understanding nitrous oxide induced subacute combined degeneration of the cord: two case reports with a review of the pathophysiology and MRI features. Irish Medical Journal , 117 , (10) .

Gernez, Emeline and Lee, Graham Robert and Niguet, Jean-Paul and Zerimech, Farid and Bennis, Anas and Grzych, Guillaume (2023) Nitrous oxide abuse: clinical outcomes, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and impact on metabolism. Toxics , 11 , (12) .

Millar, Sean (2023) Adolescent Addiction Service report, 2023. Drugnet Ireland , Issue 85, Spring 2023 , pp. 24-25.

Mongan, Deirdre (2023) Nitrous oxide use in Ireland. Drugnet Ireland , Issue 84, Winter 2023 , pp. 25-27.

McCormick, John P and Sharpe, Sophie and Crowley, Karen and Dudley, Alexander and O'Laoi, Ruadhan and Barry, Michael and Owens, Lisa and Doherty, Colin P and Redmond, Janice and Yeung, Sarah-Jane (2023) Nitrous oxide-induced myeloneuropathy: an emerging public health issue. Irish Journal of Medical Science , 19 , (1) , pp. 383-388.

Paris, Alvar and Lake, Luke and Joseph, Albert and Workman, Anna and Walton, Joseph and Hayton, Tom and Evangelou, Nikos and Lilleker, James B and Ayling, Ruth M and Nicholl, David and Noyce, Alastair J (2023) Nitrous oxide-induced subacute combined degeneration of the cord: diagnosis and treatment. Practical Neurology , 23 , (3) , pp. 222-228.

Darke, Shane and Zahra, Emma and Duflou, Johan and Peacock, Amy and Farrell, Michael and Lappin, Julia (2023) Characteristics and circumstances of volatile solvent misuse-related death in Australia, 2000-2021. Clinical Toxicology , 61 , (4) , pp. 260-265.

Mair, Devan and Paris, Alvar and Zaloum, Safiya A and White, Laura M and Dodd, Katherine C and Englezou, Christina and Patel, Farhin and Abualnaja, Siraj and Lilleker, James B and Gosal, David and Hayton, Tom and Liang, Di and Allroggen, Holger and Pucci, Mark and Keddie, Stephen and Noyce, Alastair J (2023) Nitrous oxide-induced myeloneuropathy: a case series. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry , 94 , (4) , pp. 681-688.

Nugteren-Van Lonkhuyzen, Johanna J and van der Ben, Lot and van den Hengel-Koot, Irma S and de Lange, Dylan W and van Riel, Antoinette J H P and Hondebrink, Laura (2023) High incidence of signs of neuropathy and self-reported substance use disorder for nitrous oxide in patients intoxicated with nitrous oxide. European Addiction Research , 29 , (3) , pp. 202-212.

Brunt, Tibor M and van den Brink, Wim and van Amsterdam, Jan (2022) Mechanisms involved in the neurotoxicity and abuse liability of nitrous oxide: a narrative review. International Journal of Molecular Sciences , 23 , (23) .

van Amsterdam, Jan and Brunt, Tibor M and Nabben, Ton and van den Brink, Wim (2022) Recreational N2O use: just laughing or really bad news? Addiction , 117 , (2) , pp. 268-269.

Ferreiria, Plinio M and Nutt, David (2022) Regulating the oxides of nitrogen – popping the myths. Drug Science, Policy and Law , 8 , (1) .

Ferreira, Plinio N and Winstock, Adam R and Schlag, Anne Katrin and Brandner, Brigitta and Henderson, Graeme and Miller, Ian and Van Amsterdam, Jan and Phillips, Laurence D and Taylor, Polly and Gittins, Rosalin and Rolles, Steve and van den Brink, Wim and Nutt, David (2022) A comparative study of the harms of nitrous oxide and poppers using the MCDA approach. Drug Science, Policy and Law , 8 .

HSE drugs.ie. Smyth, Bobby P (2021) Talk to your child about drugs and new drug trends. Tips for parents concerned with nitrous oxide. drugs.ie .

Oomens, Thomas and Riezebos, Robert K and Amoroso, Giovanni and Kuipers, Remko S (2021) Case report of an acute myocardial infarction after high-dose recreational nitrous oxide use: a consequence of hyperhomocysteinaemia? European Heart Journal. Case Reports , 5 , (2) , ytaa557.

Ogunjimi, Elizabeth (2020) Risk of nitrous oxide use. Irish Medical Times .

DrugScience, Global Drug Survey, Release, Transform Drug Policy Foundation. (2020) Parliamentary briefing on tackling the misuse of Nitrous Oxide. .

Rough, Elizabeth and Brown, Jennifer (2020) Nitrous oxide: No laughing matter? .

Bao, Lei and Li, Qing and Li, Qingjie and Chen, Hao and Zhang, Ruixue and Shi, Hongjuan and Cui, Guiyun (2020) Clinical, electrophysiological and radiological features of nitrous oxide-induced neurological disorders. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment , 16 , pp. 977-984.

Sheldon, Rollo JG and Reid, Michael and Schon, Frederick and Poole, Norman A (2020) Just say N2O – nitrous oxide misuse: essential information for psychiatrists. BJPsych Advances , 26 , (2) .

Al-Sadawi, Mohammed and Claris, Hidalgo and Archie, Chinyere and Jayarangaiah, Apoorva and Oluya, Modupe and McFarlane, Samy I (2018) Inhaled nitrous oxide 'whip-its!' causing subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord. American Journal of Medical Case Reports , 6 , (12) , pp. 237-240.

Van Hout, Marie Claire and Bingham, Tim (2013) Surfing the Silk Road: A study of users’ experiences. International Journal of Drug Policy , 24 , (6) , pp. 524-529.

Gillman, Mark Alfred and Lichtigfeld, Frederick and Young, Taryn (2007) Psychotropic analgesic nitrous oxide for alcoholic withdrawal states. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews , (2) .

Report

Adolescent Addiction Service. Murray, Denis (2024) Adolescent addiction service report 2024. Dublin: Health Service Executive.

Stegemann, Lavinia and van Gelder, Nadine and van der Gouwe, Daan and Smit-Rigter, Laura (2023) How drug information systems contribute to enhance preparedness. Strengthening Europe’s responses to emerging drug trends. Amsterdam: Correlation – European Harm Reduction Network.

National Poisons Information Service. (2023) National Poisons Information Service report 2022 to 2023. London: UK Health Security Agency.

United Kingdom. Home Office. (2023) Consultation outcome. Nitrous oxide: legitimate uses and appropriate controls. London: Home Office.

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. (2023) Guideline: Vitamin B12 deficiency in over 16s: diagnosis and management. Draft for consultation, July 2023. London: NICE.

Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. (2023) Nitrous oxide – updated harms assessment. London: Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs.

Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. (2023) Drug Science submits evidence to the ACMD nitrous oxide review. London: Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs.

Adolescent Addiction Service. Murray, Denis (2023) Adolescent addiction service report 2023. Dublin: Health Service Executive.

Policing Authority. (2023) What we heard 2022. Dublin: Policing Authority.

Drug Watch. (2022) Nitrous Oxide: a briefing for professionals. Manchester: Drug Watch.

European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. (2022) Recreational use of nitrous oxide: a growing concern for Europe. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

Mongan, Deirdre and Killeen, Nicki and Evans, David and Millar, Seán and Keenan, Eamon and Galvin, Brian (2022) European web survey on drugs 2021: Irish results. Dublin: Health Research Board.

Office for National Statistics. (2022) Deaths related to volatile substance abuse, helium, and nitrogen in England and Wales. London: Office for National Statistics.

Adolescent addiction service. (2022) Adolescent addiction service report 2022. Dublin: Health Service Executive.

Bray local drugs and alcohol task force. (2022) Bray local drugs and alcohol task force annual report 2021. Bray: Bray local drugs and alcohol task force.

North Dublin Regional Drug & Alcohol Task Force. (2022) 'Improving health outcomes by understanding the lived experiences of young people in North Dublin’: North Dublin risk and protective factors Planet Youth report 1. Dublin: Merlin Press.

Adolescent addiction service. (2021) Adolescent addiction service report 2021. Dublin: Health Service Executive.

Western Region Drug and Alcohol Task Force, Planet Youth. (2021) Growing up in the West. Planet Youth county report Roscommon 2020. Galway: WRDATF.

Winstock, Adam R and Timmerman, C and Davies, E and Maier, LJ and Zhuparris, A and Ferris, JA and Barratt, Monica J and Kuypers, KPC (2021) Global drug survey (GDS) 2020 psychedelics key findings report. London: Global Drug Survey.

Western Region Drug and Alcohol Task Force, Planet Youth. (2021) Growing up in the West. Planet Youth county report Galway 2020. Galway: WRDATF.

Western Region Drug and Alcohol Task Force, Planet Youth. (2021) Growing up in the West. Planet Youth county report Mayo 2020. Galway: WRDATF.

Grigg, Jodie and Lenton, Simon R (2020) Increasing trends in self-reported use of nitrous oxide among WA EDRS samples. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre.

Trimbos Instituut: Netherlands Institute of Mental Health and Addiction. (2020) National drug monitor 2019. English summary. Amsterdam: Trimbos-instituut.

Webpage

WHO Expert Committee on Drug Dependence. (2024) Expert Committee on Drug Dependence information repository. URL: https://ecddrepository.org/en

European Union Drugs Agency. (2024) Other drugs – the current situation in Europe (European Drug Report 2024). URL: https://www.euda.europa.eu/publications/european-d...

National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre. (2024) The Ecstasy and Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS). URL: https://ndarc.med.unsw.edu.au/project/ecstasy-and-...

HSE drugs.ie. (2023) Harm reduction for different types of drugs. URL: https://www.drugs.ie/drugs_info/campaign/

FactSheet

Jordan, Deborah (2024) Nitrous oxide: what is it? Wicklow: East Coast Regional Drug and Alcohol Task Force.

UK & Ireland DrugWatch. (2023) Information sheet: Nitrous oxide. UK & Ireland DrugWatch.

National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre. (2023) Volatile inhalants. Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Sydney.

HSE drugs.ie. (2022) Nitrous Oxide. Dublin: HSE drugs.ie.

HSE drugs.ie. (2021) Information for parents concerned about Nitrous Oxide in their community. Dublin: Health Service Executive.

Clondalkin Drug and Alcohol Task Force, Tallaght Drug & Alcohol Task Force, D12 Local Drugs and Alcohol Task Force. (2020) What is nitrous oxide? Dublin: Clondalkin Drug and Alcohol Task Force.

National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020) DrugFacts: Inhalants. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Dail Debates

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Sale of Nitrous Oxide and Related Products Bill 2025: First stage. (30 Apr 2025)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Vol. 1059 No. 4 – Sale of Nitrous Oxide and Related Products Bill 2024: First stage. (09 Oct 2024)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Questions on policy or legislation [Vaping & Nitrous oxide]. (06 Mar 2024)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Question 769 – Medicinal products [nitrous oxide] [54578/23]. (12 Dec 2023)

[Oireachtas] Seanad Éireann debate - Vol. 297 No. 8. An tOrd Gnó - Order of Business [Nitrous Oxide Bill]. (29 Nov 2023)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Written answer 225 – Revenue commissioners [nitrous oxide] [21728/23]. (09 May 2023)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Written answer 37 – Drug dealing [nitrous oxide] [18055/23]. (18 Apr 2023)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Written answers 980, 987, 988 – Misuse of drugs [nitrous oxide] [17333/23] [17415/23] [17416/23]. (18 Apr 2023)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Written answer 401 - Healthcare policy [nitrous oxide] [5802/23] . (08 Feb 2023)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann Debate. Written answer 317, 325 – Departmental policies [nitrous oxide] [5803/23]. (08 Feb 2023)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Written answer 156 - Substance misuse [58329/22] [nitrous oxide]. (23 Nov 2022)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Written answer 222 - Revenue Commissioners [Nitrous oxide] [45791/22]. (20 Sep 2022)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Written answer 758 – Departmental regulations [32097/22]. (21 Jun 2022)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann debate. Written answer 177 - Illicit trade [nitrous oxide] [27855/22]. (31 May 2022)

[Oireachtas] Dáil Éireann Debate. Written answer 254 - legislative measures [21541/22]. (28 Apr 2022)

[Oireachtas] Dail Eireann debate. Public health, well-being and National Drugs Strategy: statements. (10 Sep 2020)

[Oireachtas] Dail Eireann debate. Substance misuse. [18402/20, 18606/20, 18607/20, 18608/20, 18619/20] [Nitrous Oxide]. (28 Jul 2020)

[Oireachtas] Dail Eireann debate. Substance misuse [18431/20, 18609/20, 18611/20] [Nitrous oxide]. (28 Jul 2020)

[Oireachtas] Dail Eireann debate. Topical issue debate - substance misuse [Nitrous oxide]. (15 Jul 2020)

News

[Irish Examiner] , McGlynn, Michelle Over 46,000 canisters of potentially lethal laughing gas seized so far this year. (15 Sep 2024)

[Independent.ie] , Lynch, Andrew Dublin’s laughing gas epidemic – how is it harming our young people why can’t it just be banned? (14 Apr 2023)

[Sinn Fein] , Ward, Mark Sinn Féin to introduce legislation to tackle increase in young people using nitrous oxide - Mark Ward TD. (04 Apr 2023)

[RTE News] , McCarthy, Justin Laughing gas abuse leading to neurological damage. (05 Dec 2022)

[Independent.ie] , Blaney, Amy Increase in use of laughing gas among young people, warn gardaí. (25 Nov 2022)

[Irish Examiner] , McCarthaigh, Sean Doctors warn of emerging public health issue from recreational use of laughing gas. (14 Feb 2022)

[Irish Times] , Gallagher, Conor Nitrous-oxide: Laughing gas hits a new high in Ireland. (11 Sep 2021)

[Irish Examiner] , Ring, Evelyn One-in-four drug users at Irish festivals using laughing gas. (06 Sep 2020)

[thejournal.ie] , Ryan, Nicky Gardaí unable to provide figures on 'laughing gas' arrests and seizures due to IT limitations. (02 Aug 2020)

[Irish Times] , O'Halloran, Marie ‘Drug craze’: use of laughing gas by under-18s should be banned – FG TD. (17 Jul 2020)

[Independent.ie] , Gataveckaite, Gabija Fine Gael TD ‘got in trouble’ with Ceann Comhairle for bringing nitrous oxide canisters into the Dáil. (17 Jul 2020)

[An Phoblacht] , Doolan, Daithi Time to talk about ‘silver bullet’ drug use. (14 Jul 2020)

[Irish Times] , Gleeson, Colin Minister seeks report on use of laughing gas following death of a teenager. (08 Jul 2020)

[Irish Times] , Cluskey, Peter Excessive use of laughing gas can damage spine, Dutch doctors say. (26 Jun 2020)

[thejournal.ie] , MacNamee, Garreth Use of nitrous oxide or 'hippie crack' on the rise during pandemic. (03 Jun 2020)