Background: Rural populations experience pronounced disparities in access to, engagement with, and outcomes from addiction services. This is often, driven by factors such as stigma, gendered expectations, geographic isolation, and fragmented service provision. Nurses, who comprise nearly half of the global healthcare workforce, are uniquely positioned to respond to these challenges and deliver accessible, holistic care to individuals affected by substance use.

Aims and Objectives: This study sought to develop an evidence-based, nurse-led model of addiction care for rural settings, guided by the World Health Organisations Integrated People-Centred Health Services (IPCHS) Framework.

The study objectives were to:
1. Assess the burden of substance use within a defined rural community through a holistic needs assessment, using descriptive statistical analysis of national health data, data that is also regularly available in other EU settings.
2. Explore, from the perspective of individuals who use substances, current experiences of accessing addiction services and identify gaps across care pathways.
3. Examine the views of healthcare and allied professionals on the enablers and barriers to effective addiction care delivery in rural contexts.
4. Use the literature on best practice and the data gathered to develop a nurse-led model of integrated care, grounded in service user and provider experiences, and responsive to the unique needs of rural communities.

Methods: An explanatory sequential mixed methods study design was employed. In phase one, quantitative data from three national datasets, the Hospital In-Patient Enquiry (HIPE), Emergency Department (ED), and the relevant data from the EU wide Treatment Demand Indicator (TDI), were analysed to identify trends in rural service utilisation, referral patterns, gender disparities, and service access. In phase two, qualitative interviews with people who use relevant services and healthcare professionals were conducted to contextualise and interpret the quantitative findings. The integration of both phases in conjunction with the literature, informed the development of a rural-specific, nurse-led addiction care model.

Results: Quantitative findings revealed that women accounted for only 25% of addiction service users across all datasets. Qualitative interviews attributed this underrepresentation to gendered stigma, fears of being labelled a 'bad mother', and concerns around confidentiality in close-knit communities. ED data showed that 18% of substance-related presentations resulted in self-discharge, often linked to feelings of stigma and a lack of compassionate care. Additionally, over 65% of cases lacked documented Hepatitis B, C, or HIV screening, particularly among women, highlighting missed opportunities for public health interventions. Notably, peer and family referrals were more common among women, reflecting the importance of informal support networks. Mental health needs were also prevalent, with 19% of ED presentations involving self-harm or suicidal ideation. Service fragmentation, underutilisation of follow-up care, and inconsistent referral pathways were recurrent themes. Qualitative findings underscored the need for trauma-informed, non-judgmental, and flexible services that integrate mental health, harm reduction, and social support, while also tailoring these services to meet the distinct needs of different genders. Participants advocated for mobile clinics, telehealth, and low-barrier access points embedded within rural communities.

Conclusion: This study culminated in the development of the CAIM Model: a Connected, Adaptive, Integrated Model - Nurse-Led Addiction Care for Rural and Resource-Poor Settings, grounded in the WHO IPCHS Framework. The CAIM Model key structural and cultural barriers by promoting:

- Fast tracked, flexible service delivery development for rural settings (e.g., mobile units, telehealth, community hubs)
- Workforce development through specialised addiction training for nurses with priority given to those working in rural regions and settings with poorer resources
- Stigma-free, gender-sensitive engagement strategies
- Integrated mental health and addiction treatment
- Implementation of the CAIM model with strengthened governance, continuity of care, and cross-sector collaboration as detailed within this research.

To conclude, the CAIM Model offers a practical, scalable framework for transforming rural addiction services. By positioning nurses at the centre of care coordination, it responds to the lived realities of rural service users and provides actionable guidance for policymakers, health leaders, and practitioners seeking to advance equity and quality in addiction care.