One of the most difficult challenges for any prescriber is distinguishing between the legitimate prescription of controlled substances versus the prescription potentially used for illegitimate purposes. To discern the difference, prescribers need to understand the signs, symptoms, and treatment of acute and chronic pain and the signs and symptoms of patients misusing controlled substances.

A common reason people seek the care of medical professionals is pain relief. While many categories of pain medications are available, opioid analgesics are FDA-approved for moderate to severe pain. As such, they are a common choice for patients with acute, cancer-related, neurologic, and end-of-life pain. Prescribing opioid analgesics for chronic pain is controversial and fraught with inconclusive standards...